📘 Kings and Kingdoms (7th–12th Century)

1. Emergence of New Dynasties

• By the 7th century, many big landlords/warrior chiefs rose in different regions.
• They were subordinates to existing kings:
  • Brought gifts, attended courts, provided military support.
• As they gained power, they declared themselves independent rulers.
• Example:
  • Rashtrakutas (Deccan) → earlier subordinates of Chalukyas.
  • Dantidurga (8th century) defeated Chalukyas, performed Hiranya-garbha ritual (golden womb) → claimed Kshatriya status.

Other examples:

• Kadamba Mayurasharman (Karnataka) → Brahmana who became ruler.
• Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra (Rajasthan) → Brahmana turned king.

💡 Not only Kshatriyas, but even Brahmanas and others could become rulers by power and rituals.

2. Administration -Kings and  Kingdoms

• Kings took high titles:
  • Maharajadhiraja (Great King),
  • Tribhuvanachakravartin (Lord of the Three Worlds).
• But power was shared with:
  • Samantas (feudatories),
  • Associations of peasants, traders, Brahmanas.
• Resources came from:
  • Peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans → paid rent/taxes.
  • Traders.

Chola Taxes

• Over 400 types of taxes.
• Vetti → forced labour.
• Kadamai → land revenue.
• Others: tax on house thatching, palm tree climbing, inheritance, etc.

Revenue Collection

• Done by influential families, often hereditary positions.
• Army also hereditary → close relatives held positions.

3. Prashastis & Land Grants

• Prashastis → inscriptions praising kings (written by Brahmanas).
• Example: Nagabhata (Pratihara king) defeated many rulers (Andhra, Sind, Bengal, etc.).
• Kings rewarded Brahmanas with land grants → recorded on copper plates (authentic documents).

Land Grant Example (Cholas):

• Land included: orchards, gardens, wells, lakes, pastures, canals.
• Done with boundaries, thorny bushes, embankments.
• Rights: collect taxes (on betel leaves, cloth, vehicles, etc.), dig wells, construct canals, build houses.

💧 Sources of Irrigation mentioned:

• Wells, canals, lakes, embankments.

4. Warfare for Wealth

• Rulers fought constantly for more land & trade routes.
• Kanauj (Ganga valley) → very prized.
  • Fought over by Pratiharas, Palas, Rashtrakutas → called Tripartite Struggle.

Other Examples:

• Mahmud of Ghazni (1000–1025):
  • Raided 17 times, targeted wealthy temples (e.g., Somnath).
  • Loot used to build his capital Ghazni.
• Chahamanas (Chauhans):
  • Ruled Delhi & Ajmer.
  • Fought Chalukyas (Gujarat) and Gahadavalas (UP).
  • Prithviraj Chauhan III defeated Ghori in 1191 but lost in 1192.

5. The Cholas (Case Study)

• Vijayalaya (9th century):
  • Captured Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyars.
  • Founded Thanjavur, built temple for goddess Nishumbhasudini.
• Expansion:
  • Successors defeated Pallavas (north) and Pandyas (south).
  • Rajaraja I → most powerful Chola ruler.
  • Expanded empire, reorganised administration.

🔑 Key Takeaways

• New dynasties emerged after 7th century → often former subordinates or enterprising warriors.
• Kingship not limited to Kshatriyas → rituals like Hiranya-garbha legitimised rule.
• Administration: kings claimed great titles but power was shared.
• Taxes → numerous, especially under Cholas.
• Prashastis & land grants → showed how rulers wanted to be remembered.
• Warfare common → wealth, temples, and trade routes were main targets.
• Cholas became one of the strongest empires of this period.

 

📘 Splendid Temples, Agriculture & Administration (Cholas)

1. Splendid Temples and Bronze Sculptures

• Big temples at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajaraja & Rajendra Chola.
• Temples = more than worship:
  • Economic centres – land given by kings/others, produce supported workers.
  • Social & cultural centres – housed priests, garland makers, cooks, sweepers, musicians, dancers.
• Craft production flourished around temples.
• Chola bronze images → world famous (especially Nataraja form of Shiva).
  • Made for temples; sometimes images of devotees too.

2.  Cholas Agriculture and Irrigation

• Kaveri River Delta: fertile due to river’s branches & deposits.
• Large-scale cultivation from 10th century onwards.
• Agricultural improvements:
  • Forests cleared, land levelled.
  • Embankments built, canals dug.
  • Two crops per year possible.
• Irrigation methods:
  • Wells for water,
  • Huge tanks for rainwater storage,
  • Canals for irrigation.
• Irrigation works required planning, labour, resources → supported by rulers & villagers.

3. Administration of the Cholas Empire

• Ur → village assembly of peasants.
• Nadu → group of villages.
• Rich peasants (vellalas) controlled local administration under Chola government.
• Chola kings gave landowners titles:
  • Muvendavelan (served 3 kings),
  • Araiyar (chief).

Types of Land (from inscriptions):

1. Vellanvagai → land of non-Brahmana peasants.
2. Brahmadeya → land gifted to Brahmanas.
3. Shalabhoga → land for maintenance of schools.
4. Devadana / Tirunamattukkani → land gifted to temples.
5. Pallichchhandam → land donated to Jaina institutions.

4. Sabha (Assembly) of Brahmanas

• Managed Brahmana villages (brahmadeya).
• Recorded decisions on temple walls.
• Had committees for irrigation, gardens, temples, etc.

Election system (from Uttaramerur inscription):

• Names written on palm-leaf tickets, drawn by lottery (a boy picked).
• Eligibility rules:
  • Landowner, paying taxes.
  • Own house.
  • Age 35–70.
  • Knowledge of Vedas, administrative skills, honesty.
  • No repeated membership (gap of 3 years).
  • Must submit accounts (self + relatives).

5. Traders and Towns

• Trader associations also performed administrative functions in towns.

6. Ordinary People’s Lives (from Periyapuranam, 12th century Tamil text)

• Example: Hamlet of Pulaiyas (considered outcastes).
• Lived in small huts, worked as agrarian labourers, husking paddy, raising chickens, puppies, etc.
• Women worked in fields, sang songs, cared for babies.
• Describes daily life of common people → usually ignored in royal temple inscriptions.

7. Quick Recap Activity

Match the following:

Dynasty	Region
Gurjara-Pratiharas	Western India
Rashtrakutas	Western Deccan
Palas	Bengal
Cholas	Tamil Nadu

🔑 Key Points

• Chola temples → centres of worship, economy, culture, craft.
• Agriculture expanded due to Kaveri delta fertility & irrigation works.
• Ur, Nadu, Sabha → local self-government.
• Land grants created different land categories.
• Sabha elections used lottery with strict eligibility.
• Sources like Periyapuranam show lives of ordinary people, unlike temple inscriptions.

Explore more at Curious Cornor Education  or  Read further in the NCERT History Textbook.